Losses occur in numerous streams that cross outcrops of various sedimentary rocks that are exposed around the periphery of the Black Hills of South Dakota. These streamflow losses are recognized as an important source of local recharge to regional bedrock aquifers. Most streams lose all of their flow up to some threshold rate. Streamflow is maintained through a loss zone when the threshold is exceeded. Streamflow records for 86 measurement sites are used to determine bedrock loss thresholds for 24 area streams, which have individual loss thresholds that range from negligible (no loss) to as much as 50 cubic feet per second. In addition, insights are provided regarding springflow that occurs in the immediate vicinity of selected loss zones.
Most losses occur to outcrops of the Madison Limestone and Minnelusa Formation. Losses to the Deadwood Formation probably are minimal. Losses to the Minnekahta Limestone generally are small; however, they are difficult to quantify because of potential losses to extensive alluvial deposits that commonly are located near Minnekahta outcrops.
Loss thresholds for each stream are shown to be relatively constant, without measurable effects from streamflow rates or duration of flow through the loss zones. Calculated losses for measurements made during high-flow conditions generally have larger variability than calculated losses for low-flow conditions; however, consistent relations between losses and streamflow have not been identified. Some of this variability results from the inability to account for tributary inflows and changes in storage. Calculated losses are shown to decrease, in some cases, during periods of extended flow through loss zones. Decreased "net" losses, however, generally can be attributed to springflow (ground-water discharge) within a loss zone, which may occur during prolonged periods of wet climatic conditions.
Losses to unsaturated alluvial deposits located adjacent to the stream channels are found to have significant effects on determination of bedrock losses. Large losses occur in filling initial storage in unsaturated alluvial deposits downstream from loss zones, when bedrock loss thresholds are first exceeded. Losses to alluvial deposits in the range of tens of cubic feet per second and alluvial storage capacities in the range of hundreds of acre-feet are documented.
Significant changes in loss thresholds for Grace Coolidge Creek, Spring Creek, and Whitewood Creek are documented. Introduction of large quantities of fine-grained sediments into these stream channels may have affected loss thresholds for various periods of time.
Abstract
Introduction
Purpose and scope
Description of study area
Previous investigations
Methods
Measurement sites
Water-balance equations
Factors affecting loss calculations
Tributary inflow
Springflow
Changes in storage
Changes in channel storage
Changes in alluvial storage
Measurement accuracy
Analysis of streamflow losses
Beaver Creek and tributaries
Beaver Creek
Reaves Gulch
Highland Creek
Lame Johnny Creek and tributaries
South Fork Lame Johnny Creek (including Flynn Creek)
North Fork Lame Johnny Creek
French Creek
Battle Creek and tributaries
Battle Creek
Grace Coolidge Creek and tributaries
Grace Coolidge Creek
Bear Gulch
Spokane Creek
Spring Creek
Rapid Creek and Victoria Creek
Rapid Creek
Victoria Creek
Boxelder Creek
Elk Creek and Little Elk Creek
Elk Creek
Little Elk Creek
Redwater River tributaries
Bear Gulch
Beaver Creek
Spearfish Creek and tributaries
Iron Creek (tributary)
Spearfish Creek (main stem)
Higgins Gulch (tributary)
False Bottom Creek
Whitewood Creek
Bear Butte Creek
Summary of losses
Factors affecting loss rates
South Fork Lame Johnny Creek (including Flynn Creek)
French Creek
Battle Creek
Grace Coolidge Creek
Spring Creek
Rapid Creek
Boxelder Creek and Elk Creek
Summary of factors
Summary and conclusions
Selected references
Supplemental information
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